Id., at 235. 1   Jefferson’s Virginia Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom provided “[t]hat no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever … .” Jefferson, A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom, in 5 The Founder’s Constitution 84 (P. Kurland & R. Lerner eds. Nor, to the extent that the supplement/supplant line is separable from respondents’ direct/indirect and “no divertibility” arguments, do we need to resolve the distinction’s constitutional status today, for, as we have already noted, Chapter 2 itself requires that aid may only be supplemental. Had such things mattered to the Court in Zobrest, we would have found the case to be quite easy—for striking down rather than, as we did, upholding the program—which is just how the dissent saw the case. Any criteria, moreover, must not only define the margins of the establishment prohibition, but must respect the succeeding Clause of the First Amendment guaranteeing religion’s free exercise. 12   It is true that we called the importance of the cash payment consideration into question in Committee for Public Ed. It is meant to guarantee the right of individual conscience against compulsion, to protect the integrity of religion against the corrosion of secular support, and to preserve the unity of political society against the implied exclusion of the less favored and the antagonism of controversy over public support for religious causes. Rosenberger, 515 U. S., at 842. The judgment of the Fifth Circuit is reversed. Justice Souter also relies on testimony by one religious school principal indicating that a computer lent to her school under Chapter 2 was connected through a network to non-Chapter 2 computers. No. Cf. School of Integrative Plant Science. No tax in any amount, large or small, can be levied to support any religious activities or institutions, whatever they may be called, or whatever form they may adopt to teach or practice religion. Mr. May and Mr. Lynn talked about an upcoming Supreme Court case, [Mitchell v. Helms], that considers the use of federal funding for computers for … Similarly, had we, in Witters, been concerned with divertibility or diversion, we would have unhesitatingly, perhaps summarily, struck down the tuition-reimbursement program, because it was certain that Witters sought to participate in it to acquire an education in a religious career from a sectarian institution. That reasoning applies with equal force to the presumption in Meek and Ball concerning instructional materials and equipment. Subsequent cases continued the focus on the “generality” of the approved government services as an important characteristic. Prior to 1994, Chapter 2 was codified at 20 U. S. C. §§2911–2976 (1988 ed.). Id., at 1, n. 1. I disagree, however, that the latter proposition follows from the former. In Witters, we held that the Establishment Clause did not bar a State from including within a neutral program providing tuition payments for vocational rehabilitation a blind person studying at a Christian college to become a pastor, missionary, or youth director. Providing such governmental aid without effective safeguards against future diversion itself offends the Establishment Clause, Tilton, 403 U. S., at 682–684; Nyquist, 413 U. S., at 776–777, and even without evidence of actual diversion, our cases have repeatedly held that a “substantial risk” of it suffices to invalidate a government aid program on establishment grounds. See ante, at 20–21, n. 8. Lee Boothby: Well, I would respectfully disagree with that. We held the statute unconstitutional only to the extent that a university’s “obligation not to use the facility for sectarian instruction or religious worship … appear[ed] to expire at the end of 20 years.” Id., at 683. to Pet. 22   The Jefferson Parish Chapter 2 program included 46 nonpublic schools, of which 41 were religiously affiliated. For convenience, we will use the term “Chapter 2,” as the lower courts did. To the extent respondents intend their direct/indirect distinction to require that any aid be literally placed in schoolchildren’s hands rather than given directly to their schools, Meek and Wolman, the cases on which they rely, demonstrate the irrelevance of such formalism. Respondents’ next evidentiary argument concerns an admitted violation of Chapter 2’s secular content restriction. 2d 660 (2000) Brief Fact Summary. “A:  Yes. 205a, 210a, 206a–207a; see also id., at 108a (statement of second-grade teacher indicating that she used audiovisual materials in all classes). Rather, the instructors need only ensure that any such religious teaching is done without the instructional aids provided by the government. To find that actual diversion will flourish, one must presume bad faith on the part of the religious school officials who report to the JPPSS monitors regarding the use of Chapter 2 aid. 1 v. Allen, 392 U. S. 236 (1968), we rested our approval of the relevant programs in part on the fact that the aid had not been used to advance the religious missions of the recipient schools. for Cert. Chapter 2 had such effect, in his view, because the materials and equipment loaned to the Catholic schools were direct aid to those schools and because the Catholic schools were, he concluded after detailed inquiry into their doctrine and curriculum, “pervasively sectarian.” App. 1 v. 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