Ralph Nader was beneficial in bringing safety awareness regarding auto safety. Ralph Nader built his reputation dishonestly as regards the Corvair, in my opinion. This version, considerably more expensive than plain Corvairs, featured a turbocharged engine that produced 150 horsepower. Since I'd spent a lot of time in Volkswagen Beetles and early Porsches, which also had rear weight bias and swing-axles, I was programmed to keep my foot on the throttle, so I made it through the corner. The small and sporty car was introduced at a stockholders meeting in May 1959. Low profile Firestone 13 radials on the front and even lower profile 14s on the back helped a lot. Just plain dumb actually. Ford was the first to use the "P R N D L" pattern, which also separated Reverse from forward ranges by Neutral. Mar 12, 2020 at 12:16pm, |
Hi there, I owned a Chevy Corvair in W Germany (late seventies) and resolved the handling issue by chucking a bag of sand in the boot (trunk) over the front axle. After the problems of the Corvairs were realized by third-party manufacturers and mechanics, aftermarket parts that made the vehicle safer became rather common. The 1965 Corvair, with its gorgeous Bill Mitchell-designed sheetmetal, had an all-new independent rear suspension that was far superior to that of most other cars on the road. It "(1) conducted a series of interviews with acquaintances of the plaintiff, 'questioning them about, and casting aspersions upon [his] political, social, racial and religious views; his integrity; his sexual proclivities and inclinations; and his personal habits'; (2) kept him under surveillance in public places for an unreasonable length of time; (3) caused him to be accosted by girls for the purpose of entrapping him into illicit relationships; (4) made threatening, harassing and obnoxious telephone calls to him; (5) tapped his telephone and eavesdropped, by means of mechanical and electronic equipment, on his private conversations with others; and (6) conducted a 'continuing' and harassing investigation of him. The first chapter was so boring that many never read further in his book. Consequently, more than 100 lawsuits were filed against GM. Its unfortunate that GM discontinued this car. Aug 9, 2019 at 3:03pm, |
The corvair was a car produced by General Motors, Chevrolet division, All of this helped, but the damage was done. So who was the real villain? The 5 on 5 pattern was used on their ton full size trucks such as the C-10 pick-ups. I believe they adjusted it the same way as the corvair so auto makers still were making the mistakes and still are, so ONE car is not to blame. The Corvairs that came with 5 lug wheels, as well as most RWD GM passenger cars including those Camaros and even their S10 truck range, had 5 on 4 lug spacing. Jan 13, 2022 at 3:04pm, |
These cars are so damn cute!!!!!! Although it was rear engined rather than the more typical front engine located between the front wheels it may have a comparable number since the engine was rather light. That was 36 years ago. At that time, traffic was generally non-existent out of the major cities. All in all, I still think it was a great car, economical and needing few repairs, as opposed to the Chevy Opal, another GM compact that was an absolute lemon, from the day it came off the showroom floor! In my experience it was a good handling car. Nader also offered advice about the gear shift quadrants on earlier cars fitted with automatic transmissions. Porsche 911 Miguel Medina/AFP/Getty Instead, the company charted a more radical design course that ultimately proved fatal for the Corvair. Helix. Intrigue & Controversy: The Chevrolet Corvair. What could a leftist scold like Nader possibly know about the art of driving or the mysteries of engineering? The Corvair was introduced on October 1, 1959. One of the things I recall was moving the spare tire from its position in the engine compartment to the front trunk. Another issue with the Corvair occurred after the initial accident. The 1965 and onward models replaced that with a truly independent rear suspension. All the gossip about this cars dangerous handling characteristics can be dismissed, the magazine reported, prematurely as it turned out. market for compact cars existed and was substantial. Those pesky imports with Volkswagen leading the charge were invading North America in ever-increasing numbers. Over the rocky mountains twice int ice storms . Up to that time, most US cars were larger than [11], In response to Nader's criticisms, GM attempted to sabotage Nader's reputation. It was a best seller in non-fiction in 1966. Aside from delivering poor fuel economy when stacked up against its rivals, the engine had an annoying tendency to discard its fanbelt. Privacy Policy It was offered for a while with a gasoline-burner heater located in the front "trunk," a common but dangerously dumb accessory at the time. Consumer advocate Ralph Nader brought widespread attention to the issue of product liability in his 1965 book, Unsafe at Any Speed, in which he spotlighted what he viewed as the automobile industrys failure to implement appropriate safety features in its vehicles. Aniello DellaCroce Gambino Family Underboss, Irma Grese Angel Of Death At Bergen-Belsen And Oswiecim Concentration Camps, Nude Photography, Student Models, Camera Clubs and Crimes, Smut Photography and Literature A Cornucopia of Porn Arrests, The Pascagoula UFO Encounter October 11, 1973. Nader counters by pointing out that, at the time, annual (and unnecessary) styling changes added, on average, about $700 to the consumer cost of a new car (equivalent to $6,000 in 2021). Feb 22, 2020 at 9:19pm, |
The Porsche 911 of the period was also rear engined with a flat aircooled six. It was like driving a real car after driving an engineering joke. possibility of inhaling engine fumes (carbon monoxide) in the case of Had same suspension as many other models widely used in the US and Europe (Ford Falcon, VW Beetle, Renault were a few) The NTSB concluded that the 196063 Corvair compares favorably with contemporary vehicles used in the teststhe handling and stability performance of the 196063 Corvair does not result in an abnormal potential for loss of control or rollover, and it is at least as good as the performance of some contemporary vehicles both foreign and domestic. Look it up in case you would like to actually fact check your story. Ford and Chrysler responded with shrunken front-engine, rear-drive sedans. A few friends remembered Nader's book and questioned my mom about the Corvair's safety, but I assured her there was nothing to worry about. ( Car & Driver, October 1964) Because of the political enthusiasm of one man, the innovative Corvair was shut down and a third generation was never produced. By then, however, General Motors had killed the Corvair and Nader had prevailed in the court of public opinion. I had a 1983 Mustang GT 5 speed and was driving in the mountains buzzing along, it started to drizzle and I came around a corner and almost lost my azz from loss of control. 4400 S Kildare Ave While Ralph Nader certainly made some valid points in his most popular book, the Corvair may not have been as bad as he claimed. I cannot say enough good things about this car and 1964 was the year my dad started working for GM in Kalamazoo and he retired in 1995!!! If you feel that this video content violates the Adobe Terms of Use, you may report this content by filling out this quick form. The Chevrolet Corvair was an automotive litmus test. Dec 19, 2019 at 7:34pm, |
Another option is to form an ethics advisory committee that closely examines the various ethical dilemmas that could arise from the use of your products. I said, OH NO, NOT A NADER CORVAIR. The engine was a mix of aluminum block and steel cylinders. Prior research on passenger protection in a crash was ignored. Many people add the Corvair to this list because of its, NASA Working on System That Will Make Autonomous Aircraft Common in City Skies. Why Movieland says you have to be 17 to attend a movie after 7:30 p.m. Spotsylvania Sheriff's Office ends affiliation with Reelz TV show 'On Patrol: Live', Poll: Youngkin trails Trump, DeSantis in Va. GOP presidential preference, Former NFL star Chad Johnson says he saved money by living inside Cincinnati Bengals stadium for 2 years, Ashland dairy farm announces Farmview Creamery to help modernize business, Richmond police demand $7,800 for copy of their general policies, Nebraska cheerleader competes by herself at state competition, but crowd doesn't let her feel alone, At Virginia, another undersized point guard hopes to follow Kihei Clark's path to stardom, Norment, long among the most powerful in the Capitol, is retiring, Bezos 'ban' may speed up Commanders sale as league meeting looms, Virginia State Superintendent Jillian Balow resigns, Mechanicsville man charged with 10 child porn counts. Jul 20, 2019 at 10:16am, |
He awoke sleeping on the headliner, uninjured. That book was a joke as was Nader!!! [2] [10], The book has continuing relevance: it addressed what Nader perceived as the political lobbying of the car industry to oppose new safety features, which was later seen in the 1990s with mandatory airbags in the United States, and industry efforts by the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) to delay the introduction of crash tests in the European Union. The Corvair was completely EXHONERATED of all of the false accusations claimed by attorney R. Nader. But the car guys, including myself, had instinctively leapt to the Corvair's defence, assuming that Nader's criticisms were just another below-the-belt punch from an over-ambitious safety nanny with designs on the White House. As late as 1965, he noted that 320 million federal dollars were allocated to highway beautification, while just $500,000 was dedicated to highway safety. It about made my head explode. For instance, you can closely monitor your sales and marketing practices to decrease the chances of your products falling into the wrong hands or unintended use. The Corvairs flaw was its swing-axle rear suspension that caused the wheels to tuck inward during sharp turns, which provided some unintended thrills for its surprised pilots. Uh-oh. Each of the book's chapters covers a different aspect of automotive safety: The subject for which the book is probably most widely known, the rear-engined Chevrolet Corvair, is covered in Chapter 1"The Sporty CorvairThe One-Car Accident". The 143-page report reviewed NHTSA's extreme-condition handling tests, national crash-involvement data for the cars in the test as well as General Motors' internal documentation regarding the Corvair's handling. Dec 31, 2019 at 12:22pm, |
autoevolution and the autoevolution logo are registered trademarks. The rear wheels of those cars would spin on wet pavement and the severe understeer would tend to cause them to plow off corners fairly predictively if pushed. But the public stared slack-jawed at what GM had wrought. Does it matter what year you bought? Naders view was that the cars original rear suspension was downright lethal. These cars are so universal!!!!! Nader seemed to miss the point that the rear engine may have also been a contributing factor that lead to many accidents. The whole book was to rag on the American Motor Industry. An unadvertised[citation needed] at-cost[citation needed] option (#696) included upgraded springs and dampers, front anti-roll bars and rear-axle-rebound straps to prevent tuck-under. I would like to drive this car. Most of these cars were imported by U.S servicemen and subsequently found themselves embedded in the columns of autobahn bridges or flyovers. Nov 9, 2021 at 7:35pm, |
The lack of an anti-sway bar made the car unacceptably unstable. these corvair(65-69) line went on to inspire (or was the father) the camaro(they have the same lines). Chicago, IL 60632 As the car pushed sideways, the back end began to rise on its suspension due to "axle jacking," an obscure technical term that gains sudden meaning when you are about to go off the road sideways at more than 100 kilometres an hour. The Chevrolet Corvair had a tempestuous life fraught with long-lasting defects throughout its production years from 1960-May 1969. The said the engines would not last. The battery could emit hydrogen if overcharged, further most fun-tp-drive car Ive ever owned was a 64 Monza with a slightly modified 140 HP engine. How can your company minimize the risk of being viewed as morally irresponsible with regard to injuries caused by the use of your products? By early 1960, the Ford Falcon with its skimpy fuel consumption held a commanding sales edge over the Corvair. Dec 29, 2019 at 11:27am, |
The book resulted in the creation of the United States Department of Transportation in 1966 and the predecessor agencies of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1970. By 1964, the Corvair seemed firmly entrenched as a popular import alternative while a new, second-generation car was already in the production pipeline. The corvair was For example, a company is often held morally responsible for mistreatment inflicted by its suppliers on their workforce, such as the case with Wal-Mart in China. According to an article I read somewhere they actually produced a flat 10cyl prototype for use in a front wheel drive configuration. Alternately, drivers intending to select Low sometimes moved it too far into Reverse when intending to move forwards, and the car could ram into walls or buildings, damaging property and/or injuring people. The suspension system used was the exact same type as the Volkswagen Beetle, as well as the Porsche 911. Basic Books, 1995, pp 70 et seq. My experience was so unlike many of the comments Ive heard or read over the years that Ive come to wonder if these folks had ever driven one. Jun 27, 2019 at 1:01pm, |
This fixed the issues with the 1960-1964 Corvairs rear suspension. Mine is Ember Red and a 2 door club coupe 110 hp with the 2 speed auto powerglide trans. They were simply used to that type of handling and I suppose it was their benchmark for normal. sealant which causes chronic oil leakage. As the Federal Sentencing Guidelines indicate, the organizations governing members must exercise reasonable oversight with respect to the implementation and effectiveness of E&C initiatives. Nader made an appeal to the auto industry to standardize gearshift patterns as a safety issue. The rules required a passenger observed the speedometer and that you stayed in your lane at all times. Mar 21, 2019 at 4:28pm, |
Predictably, Corvair sales went into freefall, and, in May 1969, after a total production run of a healthy 1.7 million vehicles, General Motors announced the end of production for its rear-engined Corvair. the cylinders of the engine. the air inside the vehicle when the heater was operating. There were some things that could have been improved like any American car of the period but in general it was a cut above most. [18][19], In 2005, the book received an honorable mention by conservative publication Human Events for its "Most Harmful Books of the 19th and 20th Centuries", meaning two or more out of fifteen conservative thinkers voted for it.[20]. Like the MR2, the Corvair was maligned for being squirrely and prone to snap oversteer and like the MR2 this often wasnt entirely the fault of the platform. The book says that the road safety mantra called the "Three E's" ("Engineering, Enforcement and Education") was created by the industry in the 1920s to distract attention from the real problems of vehicle safety, such as the fact that some were sold with tires that could not bear the weight of a fully loaded vehicle. Possibly if a car was not maintained properly, driven with deflated tires, they didnt know how to drive a rear engined car? Another contributing factor is the rise of what David T. Risser of Penn State University referred to as utilize collective moral responsibility, a societal phenomenon where large organizations are increasingly being held morally accountable for widespread harm. Never had any handling problems with any of my Corvairs. The small and sporty car was introduced at a stockholders meeting in May 1959. Apr 2, 2021 at 6:32pm, |
I love that car. there were no corvairs made in 70s. The seller bought this Corvair some time ago to restore but discovered it had the wrong engine in it when he took it apart for a rebuild. Thomas Sowell: Vision of the Anointed. What the book actually did is make the Corvair affordable to all that wanted one even to this day! It even had factory air conditioning! It can also result from the inappropriate handling of a serious situation or a serious [], 215-884-6150 | 844-709-6000 WebSafety issues: Heat for passengers came from air that was directly passed over the cylinders of the engine. Race driver Phil Hill once recounted that Chevrolet flew him to Detroit to test the Corvair and possibly become an expert witness in the growing number of Corvair lawsuits. But in 1972 Americans were preoccupied with Nixon visiting China, Watergate, Vietnam and The Godfather movie. Chapter 3 documents the history of crash science focusing on the effect on the human body (the second collision) as it collides with the interior of the car as the car hits another object (the first collision). Eighty-year-old Lee Egleston can say for sure that the 1963 1962 Chevrolet Corvair that he once owned was the most dangerous car he ever drove. The reasoning is that companies should be able to anticipate the damage their products could cause. The whole issue was highly exaggerated and over-hyped, just like Naders book. A 1972 safety commission report conducted by Texas A&M University concluded that the 1960-1963 Corvair possessed no greater potential for loss of control than its contemporary competitors in extreme situations. WebThe report concludes: "The handling and stability performance of the 1960-1963 Corvair does not result in an abnormal potential for loss of control or rollover and it is at least as good as the performance of some contemporary vehicles, both foreign and domestic." These design errors only apply to original unaltered Corvairs from 1962. Analysis of General Motors documents, technical literature, and all available accident data was followed by a concentrated program of Government testing of the Corvair and contemporary vehicles during the spring and summer of 1971. The committee should consist of outside experts from a variety of areas who can explore theoretical moral and ethical issues from an unbiased perspective. Thus, the passengers were exposed to the Both did not control the rear axles as done by Porsche. Washington, D.C.: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1972. Heat for passengers came from air that was directly passed over All rights reserved. The Corvair had an 80-horsepower air cooled horizontally opposed six-cylinder aluminum engine positioned where the trunk normally would be. The early Corvair really was a flawed design. The lowdown on the cars that stand out in our auto writer's driving history, Follow Peter Cheney on Twitter: @cheneydriveOpens in a new window. Owned Corvairs exclusively from 1962 thru 1975 and had very few adverse experiences that I didnt also have with other cars. The rear engine placement in the Corvair caused a weight imbalance that resulted in poor handling. It also had its reputation hurt by bad press, although the MR2 did not attract such high-caliber ire. Dec 29, 2019 at 11:17am, |
Maybe driving lessons would of helped you pilot the car better? A two-speed powerglide automatic with a dash-mounted shifter was optional. There are in-depth discussions about the steering assembly, instrument panel, windshield, passenger restraint, and the passenger compartment (which included everything from door strength to roll-over bars). By 1964, these aftermarket repairs were no longer necessary; Chevrolet implemented safer designs for all new Corvairs. from 1959 to 1969. The Chevy Corvair is my favorite vehicle. [citation needed] Aftermarket kits were also available, such as the EMPI Camber Compensator, for the knowledgeable owner. The Corvair represented innovation for the American car industry, feeling otherwise unjustifiably secure in its dominant market position. Its central theme is that car manufacturers resisted the introduction of safety features (such as seat belts), and that they were generally reluctant to spend money on improving safety. In the end the American government certified the Chevrolet Corvair was NOT Unsafe at Any Speed, and that Ralph Nader was wrong. WebBecause there were so many safety issues that arose from this case, the Corvair is an important benchmark in automotive history. Evaluation of the extensive data obtained from General Motors and from other sources, analysis of the NHTSA input-response vehicle test data, and recommendations from the Advisory Panel emlployed in this case indicate that: The 1960-1963 Corvair understeers in the same manner as conventional passenger cars up to about 0.4g lateral acceleration, makes a transition from understeer, through neutral steer, to oversteer in a range from about 0.4g to 0.5g lateral acceleration. Jan 24, 2022 at 9:06pm, |
But it was too late - the Corvair was fixed in the public's mind as an automotive El Diablo. I pulled over, sweating, and sat beside the road for a while, taking in the smell of the grass, the cerulean blue of the summer sky, and the trill of robins flitting through the trees that I had nearly wrapped myself around. All had four speed manual transmissions except the Custom. The engine had been meticulously balanced and had a 4-barrel carburator. What made the Corvair different was that it was actually capable of such a rapid turn-in (as are likely most automobiles today). With his book, Nader had taken the car out behind the barn and shot it. With manual transmissions, VW, Porsche, Renault etc can handle oversteering with the driver counter steering AND keeping some throttle after curve apex, exactly as if it was drifting. Chapter 2 also exposes workmanship problems and companies' failure to honor warranties. Do some research on how the classic mustangs were basically rolling bombs with the top of the gas tank also being the very thin floor of the interior. Renaults Dauphine and Volkswagens Beetle proved small cars were ideal for the growing number of two-car families that didnt want two full-size cars. By 1962 GM increased the spring rates to somewhat compensate for the rear wheel tuck problem. Consequently, more than 100 lawsuits were filed against GM. At no time, after the toolbox was added, did that car exhibit any handling issues. Aug 21, 2019 at 8:49pm, |
Oct 25, 2019 at 9:38am, |
WebWith any program, you must provide adequate training and this is essential for any ethical program is to be successful. That turned it into an entirely different car. Research indicates that whistleblowing is the most effective method for detecting fraud according to a study conducted by the Association of Fraud Examiners more than 40 percent of fraud incidents are uncovered [], A merger or acquisition can be a tumultuous event for all parties involved in the transaction which can create a climate for unethical behavior. I think my Corvair could take a corner appreciably faster than the typical front engined car of the day. At first, GM tried to fight back. Just one day before the announcement that the Corvair would be marketed beginning in the fall of 1960, GM's foremost American competitors introduced small car entries of their own. years. Its ironic that it was described by some as prone to rollover since the engine was a flat horizontally opposed aluminum 6 cylinder. I had the car for two more By 1964, the Corvair seemed firmly entrenched as a popular import alternative while a new, second-generation car was already in the production pipeline. Due to the weak hinges that connected the hood to the frame of the car, the hood often became a dangerous projectile that caused many fatalities. Youre correct that the Camaro wheels would have fit if you have a 5 lug Corvair, but Im afraid youre lug spacing is off a bit. It was named Motor Trends "car of the year" for 1960. People who know nothing about Corvairs, or air-cooled engines in general, will accuse it of problems, people who understand the cars and can drive them will come to the defense of the car, and on and on we go. Like its VW Beetle competition, it was essential to have a significantly different tire pressure front to rear. About the only down side to the pre 65 Corvair was the fact that it had swing axles in the rear as did VWs and earlier Porsches. That is a really uninformed and inaccurate article. United States. A later issue, after a drive of the production version, retracted the recommedation and said not to but it because the bean counters had the controls on the swing axles removed to save cost. [7]:p187. The NHTSA published a report in 1972 clearing the car of the accusations. On the other hand, so would most any car. Sucessive Motor Trend magazines first were impressed by the protype they drove and recommeded it. I used to race all over with this car and I mean race. According to the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University, about 34 million people are injured or killed each year due to product-related accidents, making this the leading cause of death for people between the ages of 1 and 36. GM finally did that in 1964 and switched to independent rear suspension in the 1965 second-generation Corvair. Mar 11, 2020 at 2:51pm, |
Nader may have had a point when he discussed the Corvairs issues, but he clearly had an agenda that was a disservice to car enthusiasts. Its author was Ralph Nader, a Washington lawyer and safety advocate who claimed that the Corvair's design made it prone to spinning, and that its steering wheel shaft could impale the driver in a crash, like a giant entomologist's pin. I was driving in a heavy rain and glanced at the speedometer. Corvair in Action, The by Handy (Jam) Organization Publication date 1960 Usage Public Domain Topics Automobiles: Advertising Digitizing sponsor Chevrolet Division, General Motors Corporation Promotional film for the controversial Chevrolet Corvair. Technical Support:800.367.3245 Understeer was so pronounced in such vehicles they would likely just plow ahead with minimal or slow change of direction if you tried this. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) had conducted a series of comparative tests in 1971 studying the handling of the 1963 Corvair and four contemporary cars, a Ford Falcon, Plymouth Valiant, Volkswagen Beetle, Renault Dauphinealong with a second generation Corvair with revised suspension design. However, even the most carefully crafted and well-intentioned ethics programs are meaningless unless the company makes a sustained effort to integrate [], An ethics and compliance crisis can, and usually does, occur when an organization least expects it. Like other American cars of the period there was room for improvement but all-in-all, the Corvair was probably the most advanced American car of the period. One way is to take additional steps to reduce the potential of injuries occurring in the first place. I thought my Corvair handled much better than most American cars of the period. Chevrolet also recommended sharply different air pressures for the front and rear tires (18 pounds per square in the front tires and 30 psi for the rear when the car was hot) at a time when consumers and gas stations alike used equal pressures front and rear. The sporty, more upscale Monza would become the most popular Corvair, with more than a third of the 1964 models being the 2-door sedan like the sellers car. Texas A&M Research Foundation. [13], Former GM executive and Chevrolet's general manager John DeLorean asserted in the book On a Clear Day You Can See General Motors (1979) that he believed Nader's criticisms were valid in the context of the rigidity and short-sightedness of General Motors' corporate culture. The Corvair was a 1964, Blue, owned it since 1968. It sold at least 215,000 more in each of the four subsequent years as the Corvair became a mini-family of vehicles with cars, vans and trucks. It had an aluminum block, depending on the model. Many corporations held the view that, as consumers unsafe use a product increases the likelihood of injury, a company bore little or no moral responsibility for injuries in these situations. In its final years, the Corvair was given an improved rear suspension that made it more stable, and GM warned customers that tire pressures had to carefully maintained. It was in many ways an advanced vehicle for the day, more like a Porsche actually than any other American car. Had GM/Chev kept the proto design, Ralph Nader would not have been able to write the book and become so famous. The cars were blessed/cursed with a severe case of oversteering. Noted twentieth-century economist Milton Friedman believed that corporations were legal entities only. Motor Trend named the Corvair its 1960 Car of the Year. It was in the vicinity of This reduced the pressure placed on the front of the vehicle and handling improved. Nov 15, 2019 at 6:33pm, |
In 1962, an even more robust Monza Spyder was introduced. This junior model didn't have any corners cut, with the second generation receiving fully independent rear suspension to avoid the dangerous handling of the original. 1965", "Federal study refutes Nader's Corvair charges, July 20, 1972", "General Motors Celebrates a 100-Year History of Technological Breakthroughs", Nader v. General Motors Corp. Court of Appeals of New York, 1970, An Unreasonable Man, 2006 documentary film, On A Clear Day You Can See General Motors, 1979, "Road & Track Takes On Ralph Nader: "Nader VS. Volkswagen A R&T Report" A Forceful Rebuttal (and Apparent Exoneration)", "Ten Most Harmful Books of the 19th and 20th Centuries", Unstoppable: The Emerging LeftRight Alliance to Dismantle the Corporate State, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unsafe_at_Any_Speed&oldid=1134424719, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 18 January 2023, at 16:46.